Consulting Orthopedists – Questions and Answers About Adult and Juvenile Scoliosis

What is scoliosis?

Scoliosis is a disorder of the spine. It’s a disorder in which the vertebrae actually rotate, and a curve is created either in the upper or the lower back.

What causes scoliosis?

We have a number of observations, a number of findings, but there’s no unified theory. We’re hindered in that we can’t take all of the observations and put them into a road map that explains why one child with a curve goes on to need complex surgical care while and another with a curve that’s seemingly the same reaches adulthood and doesn’t need our services.

Is scoliosis hereditary?

Scoliosis is thought to be genetic. It’s a result of expression of multiple genes, but it has something that’s called variable penetrance, meaning that in each generation there is a variability in how strongly the genes are expressed, that is, how severe the curve is.

A valid question to ask is: Can it be passed on? Is it something that runs in families? And the answer is yes; scoliosis tends to run in families. It tends to run through generations in families, but to have variable effects in each generation. That is, you may have a mother with a mild curve who has a daughter with a very severe curve, or you may have a mother with a severe curve whose grandchildren then have scoliosis, but the intervening generation didn’t really have any significant problem.

Can you get scoliosis from an injury?

Children can get scoliosis as a result of a spinal cord injury. One of the categories for scoliosis — one of the causes — is a degenerative neurological condition that affects some unfortunate children. The other source can be trauma. Often we treat beautiful young kids who’ve either had a car accident or a motorcycle accident or some other trauma. And as a result of loss of the normal muscle control in the spinal cord, they then develop a deformity which is secondary to their spinal cord injury.

Can the spinal injuries be caused from viral or similar diseases?

Polio was one of the most common neurological causes of scoliosis. Certainly in the ’30s, ’40s and ’50s, when the great epidemics of polio on this continent occurred, it was very common to see children with scoliosis. Now I see many of those polio patients in my clinic with adult scoliosis as a result of their paralytic condition.

Are there environmental factors that contribute to scoliosis?

The research into the environment causes of scoliosis is ongoing, and while there are some provocative findings, I don’t think that we’ve established clear connections between a medication, a drug, or environmental factors yet.

What other factors contribute to the onset of scoliosis curvature?

The vast majority of patients with scoliosis fall under the category of idiopathic scoliosis. That means, simply, we don’t know what causes it. We don’t have the unified field theories that tell us the mechanism.

But there are those cases which are neurological, where there’s some kind of spinal cord or brain injury, cerebral palsy, polio myelitis — any one of these neurological disorders.

And there’s trauma — an induced spinal cord injury.

There are congenital abnormalities of the spinal cord and of the vertebrae which lead to scoliosis.

And finally there are the so-called developmental abnormalities, and those are the ones that are the most concerning to us. My way of describing them is that there are component parts which are made wrong at the factory — either the vertebrae are congenitally malformed or congenitally fused together, leading to very severe curves, or the underlying spinal cord is made incorrectly “at the factory.” And in some of these situations we are looking for links to drugs, medications, environmental features, environmental causes, which put children at risk when they are in the mother’s uterus.

Does scoliosis always show its face in childhood?

We think of scoliosis as being a childhood disease, and we were generally taught that it was such. And in fact, most commonly, scoliosis presents in the boundary between the juvenile and the adolescent stage — 9, 10, 11, 12 years of age. There is, however, adult onset or degenerative scoliosis, which we think develops as a result of disk degeneration, and probably is an entirely separate entity from what we commonly think of as adolescent idiopathic scoliosis.

Is the incidence of scoliosis the same among men and women?

The incidence of scoliosis in men and women is approximately the same. What’s very interesting, however, is that if you are female and you have scoliosis as an adolescent or young adult, the progression rate is seven to eight times more common among girls than it is among boys. And that fact is completely unexplained. We don’t understand yet what issues cause that differential progression.

Is scoliosis a progressive disease?

Information about scoliosis is changing. The accepted teaching used to be that once you reach adulthood, the curves become static and do not progress. And for most patients, that may still be the case.

However, there’s a subgroup of individuals where the curve continues to progress in adulthood, When I was in training we were taught that a 50-degree thoracic curve probably didn’t get bigger in adulthood. Well, now we know that it can. We were taught that 40-degree lumbar curves might not get bigger in adulthood, but I see in my office that they commonly do.

So there’s been an evolution in what is known about scoliosis. And one of the problems is that many general practitioners, internists and pediatricians, don’t have access to the latest information making care much more difficult and challenging.

What is the prognosis for a child with scoliosis?

The prognosis for most children who come to my office is generally very good. The majority of children who are identified as having scoliosis may not need complex treatments, but they do need to be evaluated. Most often, we can assure parents that either we need to observe their child in four to six months or, in fact their risk is so low that they really don’t need to come back.

What is the prognosis for an adult with scoliosis?

With adults the situation can be more problematic. I see adult patients, particularly women, who fall into one of several categories:

Often I see young women with very large curves who have no pain. I tell them that statistically the probability of the disease progressing is 80 or 90 percent, and that untreated, they may well have problems in later life. With these women we discuss their treatment options on a case by case basis.

I also see young women who have a history of scoliosis who were told their curves would not progress in adulthood. And the story goes something like this: “My curve was stable. I had no back pain. My first pregnancy wasn’t terribly complicated, but after my second pregnancy something happened.” Now pregnancy is a very complicated physiologic state. The hormone of pregnancy is progesterone, and what we believe is that women who have curves that were otherwise reasonably well compensated may progress under the influence of progesterone. That is, the ligaments become somewhat lax as they need to be for pregnancy and for the pelvis to develop appropriately for delivery. At the same time, the curve starts to progress, and so I’ll see these young women who’ve had several children and they’ll say, “You know, my body is changing. Something’s happened.” Some of those women are now experiencing pain.

Finally, there are women who come in and say, “You know, I had a small curve, and it has continued to progress throughout adulthood. Didn’t seem to be related to pregnancy, but now I’m 50, 52, 55, and I really have become deformed. The trunk has become deformed. My dresses are different. I don’t have a waistline anymore. My ribs are actually resting on my hip bones, and there’s really been a dramatic change in what I look like. But I’m here not because I’m worried about my cosmetics. It’s because I hurt. Because I have pain. It’s limiting my ability to live effectively.”

Do these adults require surgery?

It’s serious surgery. And so I think it’s critically important that before any patient has any operation of any kind that the physician sit down with that individual and explain what the risks and benefits to that procedure are. So I spend significant time in pre-operative conversations discussing what the risks are, what the benefits are, what the possibilities are, what my own personal experience has been over the last 15 years. My goal is to have the individual who opts for surgery have a complete understanding of the risks and the intended outcome.

How long is an actual surgery?

Scoliosis surgeries are complex, and there are many steps to each operation. The operation in children takes from two to three hours. In adults it takes a little longer, from about four to six hours.

Are two surgeries ever needed?

Adults do sometimes need more than procedure. That is they need some kind of procedure done from the front and from the back at the same time. Sometimes this can be done in a single combination operation, but other times it is best to separate the process into two procedures.

What happens after surgery?

What happens after the operation itself is done is a phase where technology and treatment options have now changed dramatically for the better.

After a routine scoliosis surgery patients are admitted to the intensive care unit where there is focused nursing care. It really is very comforting for both the patient and the family to know that there’s one nurse who is completely attentive to their needs. One of the things that we do emphasize is the appropriate management of pain. For pain we put a catheter, up against the spinal cord and we pump narcotic directly onto the cord. We treat the pain right where it exists and don’t have to make the patient so sleepy that they can’t follow requests or commands.

The day after surgery some patients may actually sit in a chair and take one or two steps. By the third day they’ll stand and walk, and by the fourth day will often be walking in the halls. After discharge, which is routinely on the fifth day, patients from out of town (and many from in town) are sent to the rehab hospital to spend another week regaining their abilities to do all of the activities of daily living.

After surgery, some patients need a brace. Modern braces are light thermo-plastic so they’re easily put on and taken off by the patient. You don’t have to sleep in them. You don’t have to bathe in them. And you wear them for about three months. It’s a far cry from the casts that individuals were put in years ago.

How long does recovery take?

If you talk to our patients, what you will hear is that there are milestones of improvement. There is the first week leading up to discharge from the hospital. And when a person can walk again and is eating regular food and putting on and taking off their brace, they really feel that they’ve made a great step forward.

Probably the second big milestone is discharge from rehab, and that’s typically about two to two-and-a-half weeks total time from surgery.

The next big independence is driving. Some patients start to drive as soon as a month.

After that the milestones become harder to define. And yet, there comes a moment when a patient returns to me and says, “You know, the pain medication you have me on is really too strong and I really don’t need it.” That’s a wonderful milestone to hear as a physician.

Three months seems to be when many people really regain control of their own lives. Many people go back to work about five weeks after surgery in a light-duty capacity. But there continue to be longer-term gains, and so we follow patients for years and review them at six-month or yearly intervals.

For adults in pain, what can you do?

The major reason I operate on adults with scoliosis is to manage or attempt to prevent pain. Pain is a terribly disruptive phenomenon in someone’s life. Pain disrupts your personal emotional life. It disrupts your relationship with your spouse. It disrupts your relationship in your work. It disrupts the relationship with your children. Pain can really ravage your life. So I think the most important job that I have as a scoliosis surgeon is to find surgical solutions to attempt to remove or alleviate pain.

How many physicians across the country specialize in scoliosis surgeries?

There are a small number physicians who specialize in Scoliosis in the United States. What’s unusual at Consulting Orthopedists is that we treat both children and adults. What we provide here is a continuum of care from infant to adult, and our commitment really is to be able to care for our patients throughout their life.

Why do so few doctors say adult scoliosis is treatable?

Scoliosis treatment technology has changed very rapidly and there are ways to treat these patients now. Unfortunately, there is a big information gap between the primary care physicians and the specialists around the country who treat scoliosis. I lecture to groups around the country — to pediatricians, to primary care physicians, to internists — to try to reeducate, to try to change some of the misinformation that’s out there. The reality is that in the 21st century that we can treat scoliosis in adults and we can treat it very effectively.

Talk about the staff at Consulting Orthopedists The core strength of Consulting Orthopedists is its staff. We have a dedicated group of individuals, including anesthesiologists, nurses, spinal cord monitoring individuals and implant specialists that work with the surgical team. Our operating time, our time for each case, has decreased and the benefit to the individual patient is that their outcomes are better.

Plus, in an era when a lot of patients report that their doctors’ offices are very impersonal, we have not only managed to preserve our emphasis on patient care, but we really have built on that. I’m very gratified when a patient comes in and says, “You know, your staff has treated us so well.

Is scoliosis surgery covered by insurance?

That’s a very common concern: “Will my insurance cover the treatment?” Scoliosis surgery is an appropriate medical treatment and so it is covered by insurances. At Consulting Orthopedists we dealt last year with 106 different insurance companies nationwide. We, have significant skill at managing the maze that is the modern insurance company.

When you meet with scoliosis patients, what do you tell them?

Scoliosis patients bring two things to their initial office visit. The first is typically the physical pain of their deformity. But equally important is the emotional baggage from their prior experiences with scoliosis.

While early in my career the technical act of straightening the curve was extremely rewarding, as I’ve gotten older I find that the most rewarding part is often the interaction with individuals in the office.

As a result, as important as the physical part of the treatment is; so is understanding what the emotional issues the patient brings to the table: how they feel about themselves, how they feel about their cosmetic appearance, and matters like these.

What we’ve also created at Consulting Orthopedists is a way for new patients to be linked with previous patients who are at various stages of their journey of their recovery, and have them communicate with each other. It’s really valuable. Connecting potential patients with past successes has been one of the most powerful tools I have used to help my patients.

The exam room is still the most exciting part of this job. Patients come with preconceived notions. Some are skeptical. Some are hurt. Some are angry. I try to transmit my own personal excitement that I can aggressively address the deformity, and that I can successfully treat the pain that people bring with them in most cases.

Is there much scoliosis research going on?
What does the future hold?

There’s been a dramatic explosion in the amount of research that is done on scoliosis, both basic science and research into the cause of scoliosis and the clinical treatment.

We’re learning more and more about the fundamental molecular, genetic, and foundational causes. The future of scoliosis treatment lies in early genetic diagnosis, and biopharmaceutical treatment of the growth abnormalities that lead to curvature of the spine. I would hope in the future that we unlock the secrets of predicting which child will have a progressive curve, and more importantly, having pharmaceutical or genetic treatments that would really get rid of the need of implanting metallic hardware in individuals’ bodies to correct their curves.

Living Happily Ever After in Retirement Communities

The best retirement living community for you is the one which best meets your needs. Life never stops, not even at the retirement age. The retirement years are a new beginning of our lives, which arises the need to discover the best retirement communities. Retirement is a special time of our life and the retirement communities are special in their own unique ways and offer some of the best facilities.

One of the main considerations retiring seniors are faced with is whether to move to an independent senior living community. With a variety of options for retirees, there are now more choices than ever. Retirement homes can be classified on two bases including age targeted or age restricted. Age restricted retirement homes usually have a minimum age and are typically aimed for people ages 55 and up. Age targeted retirement homes are similar to age restricted except they do not have set age restrictions.

Whichever option the retired person chooses, he or she will undoubtedly have the opportunity to interact with new people and enjoy a variety of community activities. These activities make retirement more enjoyable, and can include cards, arts and crafts, bingo and fishing.

The facilities offered in retirement homes are specific to the seniors and are designed to suit their age, situation and interests. Before choosing an independent senior living for yourself, it is important to ask anyone you know who is currently living in a senior community. Everyone has their own interests in life, therefore, it is important to make a list of activities that you want to be part of and then match it with the retirement homes you have listed. The sole purpose of these communities is to cater to the needs, concerns and wants of the seniors. Some of the facilities offered by independent senior living include swimming pools, golf course, education centers, libraries and fitness centers.

As we approach the retirement age we start feeling uncertain about the future, but senior living facilities allow us to grow old gracefully while enjoying the later years in life. This is all without the stress of home ownership. Retirement living communities are an excellent option for retirees who want to maintain an active lifestyle with less hassle and responsibilities. Managing a large house can become too much to handle and these retirement homes generally comprise of smaller homes or apartments, which can be easily maintained as well as being cost efficient. Independent senior living in retirement communities is best for older adults who want to be active while still maintaining their freedom. These retirement living communities also provide security and stability in their residents’ lives.

The individuals who want to enjoy independent senior living can choose special retirement living communities, which provide an opportunity to indulge in various physical activities like golf, swimming, saunas, hot tubs and fitness classes. In the retirement years, it is important to keep engaged in various activities and with some of the best retirement homes, you can experience a less stressful life while engaging in enjoyable community events like movie nights, dance nights, church activities and campfire nights.

YOUTH CURFEW: BALANCING THE RIGHTS OF YOUTH AND ADULT & SAFETY OF YOUTH AND THE SOCIETY

INTRODUCTION

At the heart of democracy is the idea that citizens are equal before the law. In elections, every citizen gets only one vote. When citizens are charged with crimes or believe their rights have been violated, they expect equal treatment in the courts whether they are rich or poor, religious or atheist, politicians or political activists.

Every democratic society must strive to grant equal protection to its citizens. Yet one significant community of citizens is the focus of many laws but has no formal way to shape those laws: youth. Children and adolescents are a vital part of every nation. They are subject to society’s rules, but they are treated differently under the law precisely because of their age. They cannot vote, nor do they have many of the privileges and responsibilities of older citizens. Instead, laws are passed to help and protect them or to protect the larger society. One of these laws is the youth curfew.

ANALYSIS ON UNITED STATES OF AMERICA CURFEW LAWS[1]

Curfew laws have been challenged on a variety of constitutional grounds. Although some may argue juveniles do not have constitutional rights, the Supreme Court in many cases has ruled that people have constitutional rights regardless of age. Often these cases have involved issues of students’ rights in schools. Tinker v. Des Moines School District in 1969 ruled that students had the right to freedom of speech in schools.[2] This case involved how school officials had forbidden a group of students from carrying out their symbolic protest of the Vietnam War by wearing black armbands. The constitutional rights of young people have been affirmed in many other cases, such as their religious freedom in schools, where religious activity is allowed as long as it is student led. In the case Missouri v. Danforth in 1976, it was directly stated that people have full constitutional rights regardless of age. In the court’s opinion:

Constitutional rights do not mature and come into being magically only when one attains the state-defined age of majority.[3]

Although young people are subject to a large number of restrictions based upon age, the judicial system has a long precedent for people having full constitutional rights regardless of age.

The Supreme Court has long recognized that the rights of freedom of speech and assembly go hand in hand. In order to voice opinion, it is sometimes necessary to gather protests, and the only way to accomplish this is if there is freedom to gather in public as long as it is peaceful. The fourteenth amendment also guarantees that state and local governments cannot take away first amendment rights. Many curfew laws, however, have exceptions written in them that allow offenders to be exempt if they are involved in a political protest. The importance of the use of public property such as streets and parks for conducting political speech has been protected by freedom of assembly under the first amendment since Hague v. CIO, 307 U.S. 496 in 1939. This case involved a group of people denied permits from the police for holding a meeting in a building in Jersey City for allegedly being communist. The city ordinance required anyone conducting a speech advocating obstruction of government to obtain a permit through the police station before getting a lease to any hall or building for conducting the speech.[4] However, in Cox v. Louisiana, 379 U.S. 536, 554 , 464 (1965), it was ruled states may impose reasonable regulations upon assembly. In the opinion of the court:

One would not be justified in ignoring the familiar red light because this was thought to be a means of social protest. Nor could one, contrary to traffic regulations, insist upon a street meeting in the middle of Times Square at the rush hour as a form of freedom of speech or assembly.

However, the regulatory measures must be narrowly defined to reach only the legitimate objectives of the state regulation. While the Supreme Court’s interpretation of freedom of speech is broad, its interpretation of freedom of assembly appears to be narrow.

Curfew laws directly remove the right to assemble in public, and many times even on private, property. The constitutionality of youth curfew laws has yet to be tested in the Supreme Court. Lower courts are divided over the issue, many ruling unconstitutional, and many ruling constitutional. The Supreme Court has only ever had one case to do with a curfew law in history, Kiyoshi Hirabayashi v. United States in 1943. This case was concerning the curfew imposed upon Japanese during World War II. It was upheld because the court felt constitutional rights were less applicable in times of war.

General curfews have often been imposed as a response to an emergency, such as riots, and they usually were implemented only a few days to a few weeks. The key difference is that they are intended from the start to be temporary, whereas youth curfews are intended to be permanent. A general curfew, which applied to all citizens to respond to a temporary emergency, was appealed to the Supreme Court in Janet Stotland v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.[6] They refused to hear the case. However, Justice Douglas dissented arguing that curfew laws may be necessary when the security of the state is threatened, but they raised serious questions about the right of assembly. He stated he was concerned about the possible abuse of curfew laws in clearing the public of “undesirable people,” such as minorities, and he argued a curfew law should be temporary and narrowly defined.

The judicial system often applies a test to see if a law is narrowly defined enough and does not give the authorities too much power. Many lower courts that ruled a youth curfew law unconstitutional later ruled it constitutional after many exceptions were added into the law. Although curfew laws violate constitutional rights, the courts ruling in favor of curfew laws state they have a “compelling state interest” of reducing juvenile crime and victimization. Few people care about the rights of other people, and usually they only care about their own. Many adults seem not care about the rights of young people at all, by making their mere presence illegal. A survey conducted by Wichita State University asking cities nationwide a variety of questions concerning curfew laws found no city that didn’t have a curfew law specifying constitutional issues as a reason for not having it[7]. For these reasons, the only aspect about curfew laws that may really matter is if they are necessary, and if they do in fact accomplish their stated goals of reducing juvenile crime and victimization thus having a “compelling state interest.”

Nationwide, the majority of cities with curfew laws claim they are great successes in reducing crime. In a survey done by the U.S. Conference of Mayors, it was found that the officials in 88% of the cities with curfew laws believed that they helped reduce juvenile crime.[8] However, as reported by the Los Angeles Times, the survey “did not include a statistical analysis of the effect curfews have had on crime”.[9] In addition, I was only able to find one study of the effectiveness of curfew laws that did a statistical hypothesis test that the level of curfew enforcement is negatively correlated with the level of other crime. It was the only one to use the basic procedures of using controlled data and testing for statistical significance. Curfews have been around for a long time, and the crime statistics to study them are readily available. The fact that virtually no research has been done, while so many people are claiming curfew laws are great successes, seems very irresponsible, and should lend itself to skepticism. Although statistics are often used to deceive, they’re often the only way of measuring the real world, if done properly. Law enforcement agencies that say they “observe” a decline in juvenile crime should explain exactly how they observe it. Law enforcement officials report whatever crime measure conveniently shows crime has decreased. For example, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention did a study of curfew laws in 1996[10] and used crime victimization in some cities, arrest figures in others, and arrest figures for only selected crimes in still others. It made no controlled comparisons, and so it is useless for research purposes.[11]

Youth Curfews: Protection or Punishment?

Youth curfew laws make it illegal for young people, usually under age 16 or 17, to be on the streets during certain times, typically from 11:00 p.m. to 4:00 a.m. These laws are part of a larger group of “status offenses.” A status offense is something that is illegal when a young person does it but legal when done by an adult. Depending on the country, other examples can be smoking or drinking in public, running away from home, or not being in school during a normal school day.

The United States is the current leader in legislating and enforcing curfew laws. These laws are usually passed and enforced by state or local governments. During the 1990s, thousands of American cities and towns, including nearly three-fourths of all cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants, enacted youth curfew laws. These laws were part of a response to the increase in juvenile crime that occurred in the United States between 1988 and 1992. During those four years, juvenile homicide increased 55 percent. Forcible rape increased 27 percent, and aggravated assault jumped 80 percent. Young people under 16 were responsible for 62 percent of violent juvenile offenses, but statistics also showed that teenagers were the most frequent targets of juvenile violence. Curfew laws enacted in the 1990s were aimed at reducing juvenile crime and preventing youth victimization.

Several European democracies have imposed different versions of youth curfews. In Britain, a 1998 law allowed local councils to impose curfews for all children under ten. A Scottish program mandates police officers to stop young people on the streets at night and divert them towards youth activities available at clubs set up by the local council. Serbia has debated extending wartime curfew policies for young people only. Curfews also have been introduced in Australia. In the city of Perth, Australian lawmakers recently imposed a curfew for a year; they report that the curfew has reduced crime and antisocial behavior. Curfew laws in the United States have been challenged by the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). ACLU lawyers argue that the curfew law violates young people’s rights under the U.S. Constitution, including freedom of speech and peaceful assembly, freedom from unreasonable detainment, fair treatment under the law, and the right to travel.

Not surprisingly, different challenges to local curfew laws in the United States have yielded different results. A federal court declared that the curfew law in the city of Dallas, Texas, was unconstitutional. The city appealed this decision to a higher court, and that court ruled that the Dallas curfew was constitutional because it had the potential to reduce juvenile crime and victimization. The higher court also ruled that certain exceptions in the curfew law provided young people and their parents with enough freedom to move about after curfew hours. Many other communities followed Dallas’s example and established curfew laws. In 2001, however, curfew laws were successfully challenged in the states of Alaska, New Jersey, New York, and elsewhere. In those cases, curfew laws were found to violate the constitutional rights of young people and their parents.

Balancing Rights and Safety

Most arguments about youth curfews address two main ideas: (1) the safety of youth and society and (2) the rights of youth and adults.

1. The Safety of Young People and Society.

Advocates claim that youth curfews can help protect vulnerable children. Most parents, they say, are responsible, but many cannot supervise their children, who may then fall victim to street crime and accidents. Curfews, they say, can protect under supervised children and help parents face up to their responsibilities. Supporters also claim that youth curfews can challenge negative youth attitudes in areas where defying the law is considered desirable and gang membership is a status symbol. Curfews encourage young people to spend more time with their families and in more positive activities, such as sports and youth clubs.

People opposed to curfews argue that curfews limit the rights of parents to bring up their children as they choose. Requiring adults to accompany their children to outside activities is unreasonable and prejudicial because many adults don’t believe they need to—or are unable to—transport their children around the community.

Advocates of youth curfews also believe that these laws provide communities with fair and positive means to reduce juvenile violence. Juvenile crime is a serious problem that often involves drugs and violence. Gangs can terrorize communities and create a social climate in which criminal activity becomes the norm. Youth curfews deal with these problems by keeping young people off the street and preventing them from congregating in the hours of darkness.

Opponents of youth curfews are not convinced that such programs actually work. They point to studies that show no direct link exists between juvenile crime rates and the enforcement of youth curfews. Instead, these studies show other factors (for example, population shifts and economic changes) have more impact on youth crime than do curfews. Additionally, these studies found that most juvenile crime takes place between 3 p.m. and 8 p.m.—after students are released from school and before working parents return home—rather than during curfew hours.

Youth curfews, say their advocates, can support zero-tolerance policing. This strategy is based on the theory that low-level crimes such as graffiti-tagging, window breaking, and drug dealing (all common juvenile offenses) can encourage development of a lawless environment where more serious crimes can flourish. Opponents suggest that imposing youth curfews has great potential for abuse and may turn generally law-abiding young people into criminals. They note that more American children are charged with curfew offenses than with any other crime. They also point out that statistics from U.S. communities suggest that the police arrest more non-white than white youth for curfew violations. They also say that curfews affect the poor more harshly: because youth in poor neighborhoods have fewer places to play or “hang out” safely, their only option is staying on the streets. Once burdened by a criminal record, many of these young people cross a psychological boundary, perceiving themselves as outlaws. A criminal record reduces the employment opportunities for youth and scars their futures. Enforcement of youth curfews can lead to deterioration in police-youth relations.

2. The Rights of Young and Older Citizens.

Opponents of youth curfews say that these policies infringe upon the individual rights and liberties of young people. Children, they say, have the right to freedom of movement and assembly. Curfews hurt these rights. Young people, particularly teenagers, have legitimate reasons to be out at night without adults. Many hold after school jobs. Others participate in group activities at churches, youth clubs, or sports arenas.

Young citizens cannot learn how to be responsible unless they have opportunities to act responsibly. Opponents of curfews also note that this kind of law treats all young people as potential law breakers. While only 0.2 percent of youth in the United States commit serious offenses, youth curfews limit the remaining 99.8 percent of young people who seek to engage in legitimate activities during nighttime hours. Moreover, curfew laws tend to discriminate by age, despite the fact that young people commit fewer crimes than adults.

Supporters of youth curfews agree that such programs take the law-abiding majority of young people off the streets. They see this restriction, however, as a protection and an advantage: it protects law-abiding youth from law-breakers, and it gives the police the advantage of focusing their resources on only those few young people actively breaking the law. Balancing the rights and safety needs of youth and adults remains a challenge.

CONCLUSION

In early 2009 the Chief Minister of Perlis (Malaysia) announced his intention to enforce youth curfew. It was intended to reduce crime rates and prevent youths from getting involved with immoral activities. However, his intention has been heavily criticized. Some agreed with him, including the Pemuda UMNO Perlis, but most disagreed.

The biggest challenge to enforcement of youth curfew is the Federal Constitution. It has been stated in many cases[13] and in the Federal Constitution itself that any subsidiary laws which contradict the Federal Constitution, the later shall prevail[14]. Hence, until the Federal Constitution is amended, there is no guarantee for enforcement of youth curfew laws to be practicable in Malaysia.

*original document has footnotes. Please e-mail me at mahyuddindaud86@yahoo.com if you would like to have a copy of this document.

Gated Communities, Palm Gardens

In recent years the prevalence of gated communities has increased drastically in the U.S. There are several reasons for this jump in popularity. Security is a prime motivating factor behind gated communities. These types of developments provide a greater level of peace of mind and safety in a time where home based crime has risen astronomically. The concept of having a community surrounded by a secure perimeter has caught on and has proven over time to be a reliable deterrent for home crimes.

Secondly, the development of this kind of community has enabled the developers free range to incorporate as many added bonuses as they can conceive. Modern gated communities are a real lifestyle living options and by far the most popular style that has evolved is the 55+ community. This style of home situation provides a high class of living for adults who are seeking a mature environment and a quiet, relaxing home.

Palm Gardens is such a community. Lying just east of Mesa, Arizona; this retirement community offers a huge array of great extras to residents. Social interaction is the way of life at Palm Gardens and to that end the community offers a fitness club, heated pools, games courts, and many other refined luxuries. The community is made up of several different neighborhoods bordered by lush greenery and interspersed by beautifully landscaped streets and parks with two different clubhouses for organized activities.

Palm Gardens is also one of the premier RV communities in Arizona. If you are one of those people who chooses to summer in a different area then escape to the sunshine of Arizona in an RV, Palm Gardens is the place to park.

Selecting Fish for 55 Gallon Freshwater Aquariums

As one’s interest and knowledge in aquarium keeping grows it is natural to want to step up to a larger tank.  One very popular mid/larger sized aquarium is the 55 gallon tank.  The larger tank really opens up a lot of wonderful possibilities to explore.  Here are a few themes and ideas of fish for a 55 gallon freshwater aquarium to get you started.

Cichlids – African cichlids are some of the most colorful and interesting freshwater fish around.  They can be kept in smaller aquariums, but with their territorial nature, a small tank can only support a few fish.  African cichlids can only be kept with other African cichlids, as they are very aggressive toward other fish, so they are a perfect choice for a “species tank”.  Some people might worry that keeping a tank full of only one species might be a bit boring, but with African cichlids, that is certainly not the case.  A 55 gallon tank would support about a dozen adult cichlids which would provide a wide spectrum of colors and personalities in the tank.  One important point about the cichlid tank is that if you want live plants, cichlids are not for you.  Cichlids are constantly “landscaping” the tank, digging and rearranging everything in the tank.  A well-stocked cichlid tank is a real crowd pleaser!

Discus – Discus are a beautiful fish that are thought by some to be difficult to keep.  This is not actually the case.  They do have specific requirements that differ from a lot of other common community fish, but if properly provided for, the discus is a hardy fish.  The discus doesn’t have to be the only fish in the tank, but they do best if they are the primary fish.  They strongly prefer to be in groups with other discus and based on their adult size, they require about 10 gallons of aquarium space per fish.  That translates to about 6 discus in a 55 gallon tank, and this is a large enough group to make the fish happy and to create a great discus display tank as well.

A “Schools” Community Tank – This term describes a community tank with different schools of fish as the primary inhabitants.  With a small aquarium it is only possible to have a few different types of fish, and only 1 or 2 specimens of those, as the small tank just can’t support big numbers of fish.  Many common aquarium fish when in their native environment are found in schools because they prefer groups.  We are able to replicate this with a larger tank.  One Cory cat is nice in an aquarium, but in a group of 4 or 5 they take on a whole new persona.  A school of cardinal tetras are a beautiful sight. With a bunch of hatchet fish or danios cruising on the surface, you create an aquarium with constant activity and loads of personality.  Given the natural tendency of these fish to live in groups, the “schools” aquarium will have a very authentic feel.

These are just a few ideas.  One should definitely experiment depending on personal preferences and experiences, but most of all enjoy the limitless potential of the 55 gallon freshwater aquarium.

Molluscicidal activity of some Solanum species extracts against the snail Biomphalaria alexandrina

Molluscicidal activity of some Solanum species extracts against the snail Biomphalaria alexandrina

 

 

Gehad T. El-Sherbini 1*$, Rawia M Zayed2*, Eman T. El Sherbini ,3*

 

 

 

1Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, October 6 University Cairo (Formerly Sinai University), El Arish, Egypt

 2Department of Zoology, El Nahda University, Beni Sweif. Egypt

3Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University.  Egypt

 

 

 

*These authors contributed equally to this work

§Corresponding author

 

 

 

 

Email addresses:

gody_55@yahoo.com           GTS:

               ETS: emanelsherbiny55@yahoo.com

            RZ: rawiazayed@hotmail.com

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Abstract

Background

Snails’ species are associated with transmission schistosomiasia and fascioliasis, and other parasitic disease as intermediate host. Biological control alone as a part of integrated snail management stands to be a better alternative to the chemical controls aimed against snails. The search of herbal preparations that do not produce any adverse effects in the non- target organisms and are easily biodegradable remains a top research issue for scientists associated with alternative molluscicides control.

Method

Solvent extracts of fresh mature leaves of S.nigrum, S. villosum, and S. sinaicum were tested against Biomphalaria alexandrina, a common intermediate host of schistosoma mansoni. A phytochemical analysis of chloroform: ethanol extract was performed to search for active toxic ingredient. The lethal concentration was determined

Objective of the study

The present study was designed to screen the toxic effect of snail molluscicidal activity extract isolated from matured leaves of Solanum negrum, Solanum sinaicum, and Solanum villosum against Biomphlaria Alexandrina snails, which are an intermediate host of parasites causing human schistosomiasis.

Results

Extracts isolated from mature leaves of Solanum species were found to be having molluscicidal properties. S. nigrum extract was recorded as the highest mortality rate. When the mortality of different solvent extracts was compared, the maximum (p<0.05) mortality was recorded at a concentration of 90 ppm of ethanol extract of S. nigrum.

Conclusion

Extract of mature leaves of S. nigrum exhibited molluscicidal activity followed by S. sinaicum and the less one was S. villosum. The study provides considerable scope in exploiting local indigenous resources for snails’ molluscicidal agents

Background

The snails have the potential and lethal capacity to harm more than million victims a year around the world. Exploitation of the snail host is effectively accomplished by dramatic and dynamic changes in host survival, behaviour, defence immune function, nutrition, metabolism and reproduction [1].  Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease that affects 200 million people in different countries; and frequently referred to as the second most important parasitic disease after malaria among the infectious diseases of tropical and subtropical countries, and the third most prevalent parasitic disease in the world in terms of overall morbidity burden, socio- economic and public health importance and human impact. Use of molluscicides to eradicate the snail vector is considered the method of choice to eliminate schistosomiasis [2]. Several different strategies have been used to control snail populations. Although praziquantel is available and generally very effective, the treatment is expensive and not always successful. [3,4]. In poor countries where schist soma is common, biological control of the snails that serves as intermediate host for schist soma and Fasciola, appears feasible and cost effective. Control of the intermediate host disrupts the life cycle of the parasite, stopping the transmission of infection. Synthetic organic molluscicides have been widely used for the effective control of harmful snails [5]. Today, it has been realized that these molluscicides are toxic to non- target animals and have a long –term detrimental effect on the aquatic environment [3, 6]. Medicinal plants represent the oldest and most wide spread form of medication known to man, and have become the focus of attention since they are less expensive and less hazardous to the environment than their synthetic counterparts [3]. For many centuries people have been trying to alleviate and treat diseases with different plant extracts and formulations [2].  The cost and toxicity of synthetic molluscicides, used in the intermediate snail hosts of snail- borne diseases, resulted in renewing the interest in plant molluscicides [5, 6].

Tropical plants have a long history of use in traditional medicine in many parts of the world, and to improve the efficacy of modern medical practice, researchers are increasingly turning their attention to folk medicine as a source of new drugs.

The leaves of many species of Solanum have molluscicidal properties and relatively little work has been carried out on this possibility and much more is necessary especially field trials. Before field trials are started, more laboratory testing is also necessary to determine the MLC50 values for different species and study toxicity to non- target organisms. The Species S. nigrum, known as, black night shade. Herbs, shrubs, trees, or vines, with or without spines, leaves alternate or paired and frequently unequal in size. Flowers, white, green yellow, pink, or purple. Fruit a berry, usually fleshy but occasionally dry, usually many- seeded, the seeds often flattened. Egyptian S. nigrum extracts were very effective at controlling intermediate host of parasites causing human schistosomiasis and fascioliasis [7]

Solanum villosum is a common weed known as red- fruit night shade; this is Ayurvedic herb with multiple medicinal properties [8]. Solanum siniacum plants are isolated from high land of Tin (wilderness) desert of North Sinai, these mountains, besides being rather rich in plant diversity; include many interesting elements not known from Egyptian mainland, or even in other region of Sinai. The aim of this study was to screen for molluscicidal activity, of, Solanum species against adult Biomephlaria  alexandrina snails and comparative study of the different degrees of toxicity of each species of genus Solanum.

Materials and Methods

Test snails

Species of intermediate snail host of intestinal schistosomiasis, Biomphalaria alexandrina were used in this study. Adult snails were collected from some irrigation canals in Giza and Dakahlia Governorate, The canals had not been previously treated with molluscicides. Uninfected snails, that is, those that did not show patent trematode infections, were maintained in the laboratory conditions for seven days before being used in our molluscicidal tests. Ten snails were then allocated to each of the groups and immersed in either untreated; dechlorinated tap water (control) or aqueous extract treated dechlorinated water. Preparations of the plant extracts and toxicity test protocols were adapted from those described by Brackenbury and Appleton in 1997[9, 10]

Plant material

The plants examined in this study were selected on the basis of ethnopharmacological information indicating their medical uses in schistosomiasis control in the endemic areas. The plant species were collected locally from their natural habitat. Leaves of the plants (Sollanum nigrum S. villosum, and S. sinaicum) were collected from Faiyoum, Giza, and Sinai during the four seasons from March 2008 to February 2009, and identified by a plant taxonomist.

The molluuscicidal activity against the snails was assessed to determine the toxicity and the degree of toxicity of leaves collected at various seasons.

 

 

Preparation and preservation of plant extracts:

One kilogram me(1kg) each of the air- dried plant leaves were ground into fine particles with a warring blender, and Soxhlet extracted twice, on each occasion with 2.5 litres of distilled water at room temperature for 24 hrs with shaking. The aqueous extracts were filtered through Whatman No 1 filter paper, then concentrated to dryness in vacuo under reduced pressure in a rotary evaporator at 30 + 1oC and freeze-dried, finally yielding powdery, crude aqueous extract of the plant leaves.

Preparation of plant extracts in different solvent systems

The plant extracts were prepared using five solvents, namely petroleum ether, benzene, chloroform: methanol (1:1, v/v), acetone and absolute alcohol, applying one after another (extraction period 72 hour for each solvent a temperature was <40oC). The extracts were collected separately and the column of the Soxhlet apparatus was washed with 200 ml of water and 100 ml of a similar solvent as an eluent after each type of solvent extraction procedure. The eluted materials and each type of extract were concentrated in combination at 40oC to 100 ml of extract by evaporation in a rotary evaporator. Then each of the extracts was filtered, solvents were evaporated and the solid residues were weighed and then dissolved in a suitable amount of sterilized distilled water for the formulation of graded concentrations. The total yield of each extract from 25 g of leaves was as follows: petroleum ether extract, 1.26 g, benzene extract, 2.38 g, chloroform: methanol (1:1, v/v) extract, 4,33 g, acetone extract, 3.00 g; and absolute alcohol extract 2.36 g. From the crude extracts, stock solutions of concentration series in gram per litre of water (1000 mg/L) were freshly prepared in distilled water. Different test dilute solutions, ranging from 10 to 1000 mg/L, (i.e ppm) were prepared from the stock solutions, using deionized and dechlorinated water, to determine the LD50 and LD90 values.

Molluscicidal activity tests:

Molluscicidal evaluation of the plant extracts were performed according to WHO guidelines [11]. Groups of 10 uninfected snails were placed in glass tanks (containers) with some sand, snail food and 1000 ml of deionized and dechlorinated pond or tap water bubbled with atmospheric air. Tests were carried out at room temperature (26+ 1oC). In each set up, the snails were prevented from crawling out of the glass container by means of a fine stainless steel mesh placed above the water surface. The test snails were challenged with various doses of the plant extracts (10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,90,100,200,400,800,and 1000 mg/l{ppm}. After 24 hours of exposure to the plant extracts, the snails were transferred to fresh dechlorinated and deionized water and maintained there for another 24 hours. Death of the snails was determined and confirmed by the absence of heartbeat and lack of reaction to irritation of the foot with a blunt wooden probe to elicit typical withdrawal movements. Control solutions were also made with deionized and dechlorinated tap water. Control experiments were performed with deionised and dechlorinated water alone (negative control) or with niclosamide (Baylucide) (positive control). Moulliscicidal test with each plant extract dose was separately repeated three times. The snails were neither fed nor disturbed during the exposure and recovery periods. LD 50 and LD90 ( referring to the plant extract doses in ppm, that kill b 50% and 90% of the test snails respectively) were determined by the methods of [12] with 95% confidence limit. Plant extracts that causes no mortality at 1000 ppm were considered inactive and were not investigated further.

Results and discussion

 

In the present study, a species of solanum were screened for its moulluscicidal activity. Successive extracts of leaves were evaluated for their molluscisidal activity against B. alexandrina adult snails. The LC50, LC90 are listed for different extracts of Solanum species leaves (Table 2).

The present data revealed that ethanol extract of S. nigrum leaves showed the highest molluscicidal activity (LC90= 5.95 mg/l), followed by S. sinaicum (6.04mg/l) and S. villosum (8.95 mg/l). This similar to other data [13]. The richness of the flora in most areas of the world where snail transmitted diseases are endemic, probably suggests that many plants with molluscicidal properties remain to be discovered. Several promising plant molluscicides have been identified. Previous studies have shown that potency levels of plant samples vary significantly according to season and geographical location of the plants, such unpredictable trends in the potency of plant molluscicides militate, against their selection of control programme [14]. Over 100 species of Solanum are indigenous to Africa and several of these have been developed there ( Davidson ,1972)[15]. Several Solanum species of the family Solanaceae are widely used as leafy vegetables as source of fruits and medicine in different countries, In this study, S, nigrum, S. villosum, and S, sinaicum which in its features like S. nigrum were tested against B. alexandrina snail, the intermediate host of Schistosma mansoni. The present investigation showed the effect of exposure of the different concentration of the three species of Solanum against the snails, and the results were agree with some other results recorded by [7, 16, 17, and 8].

After exposure to the active plant extracts examined in the present study, the snails showed several behavioural responses, including the “distress syndrome” described for other planorbid species by [18, 19, 20, and 21] indicative of intoxication. Swelling of the tissues was not restricted to the tentacles, but involved the whole cephalopedal mass. According to [21], the inference from this observation is that the tissue of the cephalopedal mass had accumulated water, which caused haemorrhage at lethal concentration of the active plant extracts. Nevertheless the observation made in this study suggest that the toxic principles in the active plant extracts disturbed the permeability of the foot- sole surface epithelium by preventing its normal osmo-regulatory function [21]. The toxic effect of the sub lethal doses of the plant extracts were, however, reversible after exposure if the snails were moved to toxic extract – free water for a recovery period. This observation is in agreement with the findings of Herry and Aldrich (1963) [18], and Van Aardi and Coertze (1981) [20] for Bulnius tropicus and Biomphalaria after exposure to copper.

 

Conclusion

As in general, the results of solanum species extracts indicates that the three species share in possessing a molluscicidal activity against the snail B. alexandrina. In conclusion, it appears that the ethanol extract of Solanum species has a strong mollscicidal activity and it is most suitable for biological application which offers a simple, available locally, cheap and environmental safe molluscicidal agent of plant origin for controlling human schistosomiasis by killing the intermediate host snails. Also the use of plant molluscicides may not only eliminate the economic burden of importing expensive synthetic molluscicides, but could also stimulate growth of small-scale industries in developing countries. More emphasis must, however, be placed on agronomic and organization aspects, including community participation. If plant molluscicides are to be applied successfully in long – term and self- sustained snail control programmes

.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests

 

Author’s contributions

GS conceived the idea, designed the experiments, train assistants for sample collection, interpreted the experimental results, and critical revision of the manuscript.

RZ carried out the laboratory bioassay experimentation and phytochemical analysis of the extract.

ES carried out the data analysis and assisted in the planning of the study

All authors contributed to manuscript preparation and approved the final manuscript.

 

Acknowledgments

We thank all the participants who shared their time for working on this study.

 

References

El- Ansary A, Sammour EM, and Mohamed AM: Susceptibility of Biomphalaria alexanrina to infection with Schistosmoa mansoni : Correlation with activity levels of certain glycolytic enzymes. J Egypt Soc Parasitol 2000, 30(2): 547-650. Cowan MM: Plant product as antimicrobial agent. Clin Microbiol Rev 1999, 12:564-582. WHO: The control of Schstosomiasis. WHO Technical Report Series, 1985, N0. 728. WHO: The control of Schistosomiasis. WHO Technical Report Series, 1993, N0 830. Clark TE, Appleton C, and Drewes SE: A semi-quantitave approach to the selection of appropriate candidate plant molluscicides. A South African application. J Ethnopharmacol 1997, 56(1): 1-13. Massoud AM, and Habib FSM: The effect of Myrrh Commiphora molmol on the infected snails of Schistosmoa sp and their egg masses: Effect on shedding of cercariae and on snail fecundity. J Egypt Soc Parasitol 2003, 33(2): 585-596 Ahmed AH,and Ramzy RM: Laboratory assessment of the molluscicidal and cercaricidal activities of the Egyptian weed, Solanum nigrum L. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1997, 91(8): 931-937. Edmonds JM, Chweya JA: Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crop; Black Night Shades ( Solanum nigrum L) and related species. Rom: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute; 1977:40-46. Barbosa FS, Mello DA: Acao molluscicida de plantas. Revista Brasileira de Pesquisas Medica e Biologia 1969, 364-370.

10.  Brackenbury TD, Appleton CC: Acute toxicity evaluation of the plant molluscicide Apodytes dimidiate (lcachinaceae, to Eisenia fetida (Oligochaetae) and Oreochromis mossambicus ( Cichilidae) in South Africa. Acta Tropica 1997, 63:1-14.

11.  WHO: Molluscicide screening and evaluation. Bull Wld Hlth Org 1965, 33:567-581.

12.  Leitchfield JT, Wilcoxon F: A simplified method of evaluating dose- effect experiment. J Pharm Expt Ther 1949, 96:99-113.

13.  Ahmed AH, Kamal IH, and Ramzy RM: Studies on the molluscicidal and larvicidal properties of Solanum nigrum L. leaves ethanol extract. J Egypt Soc Parasitol 2001, 31(3): 843-852.

14.  Brackenbury TD, Appleton CC, Kayonga L: Use of a plant molluscicide, Apodytes dimidiate, in a preliminary field trial in Kwazulu- Natal, South Africa. South Afric J Sci 1997, 93: 303-306.

15.  Davidson B: Africa: History of a Continent. Hamlyn, London, 1972,    320 – 322.

16.  Amer HA, Manal MAR: Molluscicidal and cercaricidal efficacy of Acanthus mollis and Its binary and tertiary combinations with Solanum nigrum and Iris pseudacorus against Biomphalaria alexanrina . J Egypt Soc Parasitol 2004, 34(3): 1041-1050.

17.  Ahmed AH and Singab AB: The molluscicidal effect of the ethanol extracts of two Egyptian plants. Solanum nigrum and Iris pseudacorus in single and combined treatments J Egypt Ger Zool 2004, (in press).

18.  Harry HW, Aldrich DV: The distress reaction to toxic concentrations of inorganic ions. Malacologia 1963, 1: 283-287.

19.  Sullivvan J, Cheng T: Heavy metal toxicity to Biomphalaria glabrata (Mollusca: Pulmonata). Annals New York Acad Sci 1975, 266: 437-444.

20.  Van Aardt WJ, Coertze DJ: Influence of copper sulphate on the water and electrolyte balance of the fresh water snail Bulinus tropicus. South Afric J Zool 1981, 16: 193-199.

  Brackenbury TD, Appleton CC: Structural damage to the foot-sole epithelium of Bulinus africanus following exposure to a plant molluscicide. Malacologia 1999, 41: 393-401.

 

 

 

Figures

 

    

 

                                

Fig.1- S.nigrum                 Fig.2- S.villosum        Fig.3- S.sinaicum

 

Tables

Table 1- The results of molluscicidal evaluation of the 3 plants examined

 

Plants

LD90 values for the snail used

Solanum nigrum Solanum Sinaicum Solanum villosum Positive control ( Aqueous solution)

100 – 200 ppm

100 – 200 ppm

200 – 400 PPm

0.20 – 0.8 ppm

 

Key: 0.1- 10 ppm = very strong molluscicidal activity

         50-100 ppm = Moderate to strong

         100- 200 ppm= Mild to moderate

         200-400 ppm = Weak to mild

 

Table 2- Efficacy of different concentration of solvent extracts of leaves of solanaceae family.

 

Type of solvent

Activity (mg/liter) 24 hour

S. nigrum

S. Villosum

S. sinaicum

LC50

LC90

LC50

LC90

LC50

LC90

Pet. Ether

Chloroform

Acetone

Methanol

4.2

70.75

6.55

6.9

8.62

142.7

11.7

16.2

6.33

90.0

9.67

8.4

11.02

175.7

12.9

18.3

5.8

82.5

8.7

7.8

9.94

164.7

11.2

17.5

 

Table 3: Moliscicidal activity of S. species leave extracts against B. alexandrina 24 hrs after exposure.

 

Plant species

Type of extract

Activity (mg/Liter)

LC50

LC90

S. nigrum

S.sinaicum

S. villosum

Ethanol

Ethanol

Ethanol

2.98

3.19

4.88

5.95

6.04

8.95

Emerging Permissiveness of Adult Entertainment and Implications for Adolescents Sexuality

Introduction

 The quest for information is growing daily and the relevance of media as a supplier and disseminators of information to large populations cannot be overemphasized.   The Media is recognized as a powerful tool that is indispensable and capable of presentation of factual and balanced information that can shape public opinions and enhance structural change in human behaviour.  However, their roles today are becoming more worrisome and misunderstood especially in the area of sexuality.  There exist today raging controversies surrounding the way sexuality is being portrayed in the media in respect of the way the media tends to reinforce stereotypes and coverage of sexual issues (Tiemoko, 2006. p.6-10) and the extent of religious silence over these media activities.

Today, a publication might be regarded as incomplete without featuring a scantily clad girl or presenting sex figures (Suzanne, et al (2006). The preponderance of sexual attractive scenes inform of entertainment is becoming appalling and called for concern especially in this age that the younger ones are the closest to such media especially the visual media (e.g. television, video, etc).  The effects of uncontrolled, uncultured and illicit sexual behaviour such as HIV/AIDS, unwanted/unplanned pregnancies, dropping out of school, unemployment, poverty, crimes, and overall consequences on economic development cannot be overemphasized.  Thus, there is need for adequate assessment to discover and filter out wrong information and the sources of such information in the lives of these adolescents who are supposed to be the future leaders of our society. 

Regulation of sexual behaviour supposed to be the general concern of many religious groups at all times and in every setting.  But the extent to which any religious group can regulate sexual behaviour of her congregation or society depends on  whether such religion is world–rejecting in its response to the prevalence of societal values or whether it has become world affirming (Ojo, 2007).  The side in which the religion belongs determines the perspective of sexuality as well as her response to the society in which it operates.

While some evangelical groups have succeeded in conservatism approach to sexual behaviour, several have veered away from this traditional religious conservatism.  The Oneida community of New York in the mid-eighteenth century practiced free love with common wives and single family structure and the Mormons practice of a form of polygamy that encouraged mating to populate the world with godly children (Foster, 1994).  Also the Odumosu Emmanuel, the Jesus of Oyingbo’ saga at Maryland, Lagos is another vivid example of possession of sexual privileges over female members and wives.  There are therefore several initiatives that encourage sexual latitude in the Christendom today with yet untold effects on the new generation of adolescents among which is the global news of recent ordination of homosexual gays as priests and Bishops in Anglican sect.  All these are pointers to the sexual latitude being permitted by the church.  The manner in which religious groups especially christianity permits, is silent on adult entertainment and all its associate influencing factor of sexuality raises questions on what the moral responsibility of churches is regarding sexuality and it also raises question about the new societal perspective of responsible sexuality.

According to Monroy de Valasco (1982), the developing countries have over 1 billion adolescents who are physically old enough to reproduce but who are far too young to be responsible healthy parents of healthy children (Monroy de Valasco, 1982).  The above assertion could not be unconnected with the absence of the vital sexuality information in homes and uncontrolled access the young folks are having to mostly uncensored scenes.  Ill-informed children especially in the areas of procreativity could engender irresponsible adults/parents with great adverse effect on their siblings and the circle might continue if nothing is done to salvage the situation.  Thus, this research was instituted to break the circle of misinformation and misperceptions regarding adult entertainment in our society.

The globalization of western culture, although with positive advancement in economic development, has engendered infiltration of this culture into fabrics of Nigeria system with visible dominance (Rodney, 1976).  This is more pronounced in some lifestyles like dressing, speaking, work ethics, mode of entertainment and views on sexuality.   One of the sources of this is adult entertainment pivoted and propelled by the media.  Adult entertainment comprises all activities where predominantly women perform sexual acts for payment that include all sex shows, live sex shows – lap and pole dancing, sports bars, stripping, saunas (with extras), prostitution.   It also includes ‘pay-to-view’ internet access and TV/DVD’s, pornography, telephone sex lines, sex shops, etc. (YWCA, 2006).   It is no gain saying that these activities have crept into Nigerian society and remained till date due, amongst others, to the hunger for westernization. 

In all spheres of life, sexuality is considered vital and unavoidable especially in the religious arena where it is traditionally affirmed to be a divinely bestowed blessing for expressing love and generating life and for mutual companionship and pleasure but it also so much bedeviled with misuse, exploitation, abuse, and suffering (RAND Health, 2007).  This therefore implies that sexuality matters require wisdom which should begin to develop from childhood.  Inasmuch as it is vital for the young people to know about their sexuality, it is equally vital that the sources of such information should be unbiased, free from misconception and thoroughly monitored by the older people like the parents.  Thus, this study was therefore carried out to examine the effect of adult entertainment, assess its level of pollution and its potential magnitude in terms of influencing adolescents’ sexual behaviour.  

Testable propositions were proffered to ascertain whether adult entertainment has adverse effect on young adolescents’ sexuality, to confirm parents’ style in Nigeria as encouragement to accessing obscene materials and test whether sex education can serve as a substitute to adult entertainment in the sex lives of adolescents.

The apriori expectation was that the study will help in providing solution to wrong and inappropriate sex information brought about by exposure to adult entertainment by young adolescents.   It is conceived that adult entertainment could implant misconceptions about sex into the young folks and lead to wrong and inappropriate demonstration of such sexual activities that may inadvertently degenerate to unimaginable delinquencies such as teen-parenting, abortion, masturbation, rape, exhibitionism, voyeurism, to mention but few.  This pilot study would however lay foundation for a bigger study from which other generalizations can be made

 

Literature Review

 

Adolescence and sexual development

According to Dehart, Sroufe & Cooper (2004), adolescence can be thought of as a second revolution in human development, the first occurring during the toddler period, when a child emerges from an infant.  During adolescence, a child is transformed into a young adult and qualitative advances can be visible in all developmental areas especially the physical changes.  Just as toddlers lose their former babyish shape, so do adolescents lose the look of children.  Not only do they grow taller, heavier and stronger, but their body proportions change and secondary sex characteristics develop.  For males this includes a broadening of the shoulders, enlargement of the genitals, and growth of hair on various parts of the body.  For females it includes widening of the hips, development of breasts, and the growth of pubic and underarm hair.  Both sexes, of course, acquire the capacity for reproduction.

Adolescents develop a much greater feeling of autonomy, which is why psychoanalytic theorists refer to adolescence as a second individuation.  The first individuation occurs in toddler hood, when children come to understand their basic separateness from parents (Dehart et al; 2004). In adolescence, the individuation process is carried much further.  Now young people come to understand they have inner feelings that even parents cannot know.  Accompanying this individuation is deidentification with parents (Dehart et al; 2004).  Teenagers are moving towards their own ideals, goals, and values, their own unique characters.  They are establishing a sense of personal identity; a knowledge of who they are as separate from their parents, and of what their place in the world is.

Most adolescents do not receive any information about reproduction or contraception from their parents.  It was established that the level of discussion on sexuality between children and their parents is a function of the quality of the relationship they have with them (Papini, et al, 1998) as well as their levels of self esteem and individuation (Papini et al; 1998).  This last point suggests that young adolescents especially, will not bring their sexual concerns to their parents because they are still in the early stages of the process of individuation.  Because of this, they tend to turn to some other sources of information on their sexuality.

 

Obscenity and sexual behaviour

There is widespread belief that a causal relationship exists between an allegedly increased dissemination of obscene material and the increase of juvenile delinquency rates.   Observations show that most children begin viewing television in early childhood the major cause of fears among the parents regarding its adverse effects.  For the pre-school child, television in modern America now fulfils the function that the grandparent is said to have performed in a less hectic age—- that of an amusing babysitter. Children on the average watch television for two or three hours a day (Himmelweit et al; 1958).  Many view even the late evening programmes.  Nielsen ratings show that of an audience of 100 at 10 p.m., eight are teen-agers and six are children; as late as 11:30 p.m., five teen-agers and three children are still in the audience (New York Times; 1960) The other media are pale in significance when compared to television. Radio as a source of entertainment has been largely supplanted by the newer medium; it is in places where television cannot reach that radio listening is widespread. Only comic books begin to compete with television for the child’s interest. One research team found that 83 per cent of the children in their sample; under 11 years of age, and 50 per cent of those between 11 and 17 years,  read more than two comics a week (Lazarsfeld, et al,1948-9).

 

Religion and adult entertainment

A major characteristic of adult entertainment is nudity and scanty dressing and the two traits could be used interchangeably to describe adult entertainment as being shown by the media.  It has eaten deep into the fabric of the society today and represents a common way of life of most adolescents.  Pornography per se connotes any material depicting or describing the human body or sexual conduct in a way that arouses sexual feelings.  It is distributed through many media, including magazines, books, television, movies, music, and the internet. It is as harmful to the spirit as tobacco, alcohol, and drugs are to the body

In recent past, relaxation on dressing habit was not as visibly rampant as experience today, especially among young girls in Nigeria. The sanctity of proper dressing was always adhered to few years back.  Until now, proper dressing was regarded as socio-cultural and normal moral standard that required no instruction or advice before it is followed by every man and woman.   It was normal to find young girls appropriately dressing in a manner that represents dignity and respect for womanhood.   Nowadays, the event has been overturned and conspicuously replaced by obscene habit of half nakedness and nudity.  While the phenomenon would have been regarded as mere advent of new culture or cultural imposition from the western world, it is surprising that it’s excessively display in common and ‘reserved places’ calls for concern.  Also, the fact that the category concerned falls in the specific younger age groups and especially among the young adolescents girls make it a worrisome development that could have some specific effects in the future development of these groups and perhaps a damaging missile into the lives of the adolescents who are the most vulnerable group. 

Religiously, clothing should be regarded as an invitation to virtue rather than being an incitement to sin.  It is therefore a surprise to see different things around in the world today.  The purpose of clothing has been lost in the society today and the seemingly sneaky behaviour in the past has permeated the nooks and crannies of religious centres, especially the church.  But while some clerics or religious houses frown at this phenomenon, several sanction this trend either by omission or commission and it is now looking like a common thing to gaze virtually into parts of the human body network from the dressing habits of some adolescents and even adults.

The traditional central tenet of Christian perspective on sexuality has been chastity.  This gives rise to the morality of abstinence from pre-marital sex, healthy boy-girl relationship and higher value for virginity.  However, the observable uncontrolled permissiveness in terms of the ‘ingredient of promiscuousness’ in some highly referred places calls for concern and this has been, among others, preventing ordinary observers in classifying the churches as either pro-healthy sexuality or anti-healthy sexuality.    

 

Pornography

There exists a world of difference between pornography and obscenity irrespective of the way and manner they are being used interchangeably.  While pornography implies films, pictures, magazines, etc that present or contain sexual activities or information that intend to make people sexually excited, obscenity refers to the offensive behaviour and languages conditioned by such pornography  (Macmillan English Dictionary, 2006 Edition).  According to the Encyclopedia of Ethics, pornography is defined as “the sexually explicit depiction of persons, in words or images, created with the primary, proximate aim, and reasonable hope, of eliciting significant sexual arousal on the part of the consumer of such materials.” (VanDeBeer 1992, 991).  But while the illicit, erotic arousal caused cannot be easily determined on the spot it will eventually transform and manifest in sexual mis-behaviour.  This thus calls for serious concern because it would eventual develop and constitute a social problem that portends great danger for a transiting economy like Nigeria.

The question of how pornography affects human behaviors and attitudes has been a considerable source of controversy and public concern. Vehement oppositions to pornography are based on the fact that it encourages immorality, sexual violence and negative attitudes toward women notwithstanding the support it gained as harmless diversion that may serve to relieve sexual tensions for adults.   In 1986 U.S. Attorney General’s Commission on Pornography concluded that violent pornography “bears a causal relationship to antisocial acts of sexual violence” and that degrading pornography “bears some causal relationship” to violence, sexual aggression, and negative attitudes, such as the myth that women enjoy being raped.   Studies indicate that men who viewed films that were both violent and sexually explicit recorded the highest levels of aggression, followed by those who viewed sexually explicit but nonviolent films. Men record the highest levels of aggression after viewing pornography that portrays women as being sexually aroused by the violence perpetrated against them. According to American researchers Edward Donnerstein, Daniel Lenz, and Steven Penrod, “It is this unique feature of violent pornography—the presentation of the idea that women find sexual violence arousing—that plays an important role in producing violent pornography’s effects.” However, studies have found little correlation between purely erotic nonviolent films and violence or aggression against women (Downs, 2007).

 

Cultivation theory

Cultivation theory suggests that frequent viewing increases the likelihood of the adoption of expressed values and beliefs that will ultimately alter actual behavior (Brown, 1993; Brown, et al, 1995; Gerbner, et al, 1986). When applied to adolescents’ television consumption, it implies that higher rates of viewing could bring about greater changes in values, beliefs, and resulting behaviors.  In this context, greater exposure to sexual content could lead to greater acceptance of the gender stereotypes (Walsh-Childers, et al, 1993).  Notwithstanding, other evidence suggests that exposure to media content is not equivalent to paying attention to that content (Ward & Rivadeneyra, 1999), especially in an adolescent population where multiple media consumption is common and television use acts as a background to other activities like homework or eating.  However, Grube and Wallack (1994) assumed the level of attention and emotional response given to televised alcohol advertising can mediate the influence of a message as well as the level of identification with the communicator. 

The theory therefore supports the premise that constant exposure of adolescents to adult entertainment such as pornography would eventually lead to their adoption of such practices as well as cultivating them as habits.  This may lead to juvenile delinquencies and vices such as rape, masturbation, prostitution and so on.  Hence, it is deduced with the help of this theory that adult entertainment (which is for adults by the way) could have adverse effects on young adolescents’ sexual behaviour.  As such, entertainment is not targeted for consumption by people of their age.   Also, an earlier study by Healy and Brumer, it was concluded that delinquents were more frequent among movie-goers than other who don’t (Healy, et al, 1936), a finding that was also corroborated by Gluecks (Glueck and Glueck; 1950).  While it is not unlikely that they established a causal relationship between motion picture viewing and juvenile delinquency, it could be assumed that a person who attends movies more often could likely have a stronger urge than the non-delinquent boys for exciting outlets.

 

Research design

A survey research technique was employed in the study that was carried out in Lagos State of Nigeria and the study population consists of adolescents who fall within the ages of 12 and 24 years inclusive.  Both sexes were included in order to identify the various perspectives of both sexes on the subject matter and to offer opportunity for assessing the influence of the variable on all categories of adolescents.

Although a systematic sampling technique was used in selecting respondents who are adolescents in the study area, the choice of the study areas was very subjective.  The prevalence of constant supply of electricity and other social amenities were considered as the basic determinants of access to the medium of watching or reading materials relating to adult entertainment.  Thus, the resident Districts of Ikeja (GRA), part of Oshodi and Yaba were purposively selected.  In this area, simple random sampling method and Primary Health Care (PHC) house numbering guided the selection of respondents who were interviewed on face-to-face approach. Only 10 houses were selected in each of the 4 enumeration areas chosen in each district.  Overall, 114 questionnaires were processed out of the 120 respondents interviewed by well structured questionnaires.  Two separate focus group discussion (FGD) were organized in these locations for more findings and confirmation of interview outcome

 

Data analysis

Distributive statistics were employed to assess the socio-demographic characteristic of the respondents and inter-dependent association amongst identified variables and indulgence in adult entertainment.  Data collected were analyzed with SPSS. The frequency distribution, cross tabulations and regression techniques were employed and the empirical results presented in tabular forms.  The hypotheses were tested using the Chi- square (X2) method of analysis, at 5% level of significance, and the appropriate degrees of freedom.  All tables are appended to this paper.

 

Results and Discussions

 

This section focuses on discussions of the results from the data analysis.  Several cross- examinations were also made among the identified factors responsible for adolescents’ motivation in indulging in adult entertainment. 

 

Demographic characteristics of respondents

Sex ratio of Nigeria was purposively used in apportioning quota for both sexes and about 51 males and 63 females were selected as our total sample.  The study revealed that an overwhelming proportion (72%) of respondent’s parents are living together as at the time of survey (82%) while about 10% were from divorced homes (table 1).  This implies that majority of respondents are from stable homes adjudged capable of providing information on sexuality.    The level of rapport within the family is below average (32%), about 11% relates at distant with their parents while about 48% held close tie to parents just because of financial needs. The “Parent-Child-Rapport” is quite below average in the study area.  This could be influenced by the working nature in the environment where several parent will have to leave home early and come back very late in the night.  This situation does not however appear conducive for close parental care or relationship except on holidays.  Also the study area belong to high social classes where most childcare are entrusted into the hands of nanny, house girl / boy or in some cases the grannies.

Sexuality communication is relatively absent in Nigeria or perhaps below expectation especially among the respondents studied. It is expected that highly educated parent would always be able to communicate adequately with their children on such a matter but the study revealed the contrary.  Only a quarter of respondents have ever received sexuality information from their parents.  About the same number (25%) have it on a continuous basis while only 28% have never discussed it with their parents (table 1).   Among those who have ever received such enlightenment, only 14.9% of the total respondents enjoy freedom of discussing any sensitive issue at home with their parents.  Majority of respondents are not permitted nor have the freedom to chat on sexual issues with those they are staying with or their parents.    However, about 48 (i.e. 42.1%) out of the whole respondents are currently in an intimate sexual relationship. About 18 (15.8%) have experienced broken relationship at their tender ages (table 1).

 

Adolescents, media and adult entertainment

Despite the fact that information about sexuality is lacking in most homes, several parents have consented to (‘permission by impression’) sexual relationship between their boys and girls and other girls and boys respectively.  This represents the parent that directly or indirectly approved social relationship between their girls / boys and other boys and girls.  About 35.1% of the respondents answered ‘Yes’ to the question: Are your parents aware about your relationship with your boy friend (s)/ girl friend (s)?  About 11% will never dare allowing their parents to know of such relationship (table 2).

The study shows that about 57.9% watch television for about 2-5 hours per day, followed by 28.9% watchers for between 6-8 hours, while only 7.9% claimed they watch television for up to 9 and 12 hours daily.  Others that watch above this hour were completely ignored purposively.  This finding is in line with American experience where an average teenager is observed to be watching three hours of television a day and that most events they watch contains heavy doses of sexual content, ranging from touching, kissing, jokes, and innuendo to conversations about sexual activity and portrayals of intercourse (Collins, et al, 2004).  Virtually all respondents have access to internet facility and about 84.2% surf internet for an average of 2-5 hours per day (table 2).  While majority would not want to do so in the presence of their parents, about 26% would not mind even browsing while father or mum is present.

 

 

Exposure to adult entertainment and sexual behaviour

While there are various media through which adolescents get exposed to them, the most common source is therefore TV as confirmed by the study.  Over 75% encounter such on TV programs. About 65% get in contact with pornography via videos while print media and internet offer 40% and 35% of pornography shows respectively, thus affirming the generalization that majority of adolescents view or get exposed to adult entertainment through watching television and seeing movies.   About 2/3 of the respondents have ever experienced sexual intercourse and almost half of this figure (48.8%) were exposure so adult entertainment while about 51.2% have not (table 3). Also, the report shows that 10 out of 32 respondents who have not experienced sexual intercourse claimed they have never been exposed to adult entertainment at all.

 

Adolescents’ opinion about adult entertainment

Table 4 shows that 45.6% of the respondents strongly agreed to the fact that adult entertainment gingers instinct to have sexual intercourse while 20.4% of the total respondents disagreed.  About 0.9% could not make up their minds while 28.1 % only agreed that the habit can influence sexual desire.  Overall, 82 respondents out of a total of 114 respondents admitted that viewing or indulging in adult entertainment could result in adversely affecting the sexuality of adolescents.

Three hypotheses were formulated viz: (1) that adult entertainment has an adverse effect on young adolescents’ sexuality (2) that the parenting lifestyle encourage young adolescents to go into adult entertainment and (3) that sex education can serve as a substitute to adult entertainment in the sex lives of adolescents. The results are indicated in table 5, 6 and 7 respectively.  These were tested using statistical method of Chi- square (X2). This was calculated using SPSS.

The proposition that adult entertainment could have negative effect on adolescent’s sexual behaviour was confirmed (table 5).  At 5% level of significance, X2 tab is far less than the X2 cal(100.56).  Therefore one can assert following the observation of Walsh-Childers & Brown (1993) that greater exposure will culminate in adoption and manifestation of such illicit sexual behaviour.  A child that is exposed to sexual content will tend to behave along the scene he / she viewed. 

Table 5 revealed that the style of parenting in Nigeria encourages their adolescents to go into adult entertainment (X2 cal = 29.86).  This finding is supported by Tschann & Adler (1997) who observed that in some homes, sexual matters are cloaked with secrecy and discussions of sexual concerns are infrequent or absent entirely.  Many adolescents are simply uncomfortable discussing their sexuality and most of them do not receive any information about reproduction or contraception from their parents.  However, the likelihood that adolescents will talk to their parents depends on the degree of the relationship existing between then (Papini, Farmer, Clark& Snell; 1998) as well as their levels of self esteem and individuation. This implies that young adolescents will not bring their sexual concerns to their parents because they are still in the early stages of the process of individuation and thus resorted to other sources.  This confirmed that sex education can serve as substitute to adult entertainment at 5% level of significance and with  X2 tab  (9.49) < than  X2 cal  (72.02) as indicated in Table 5.

 

Religion and nudity

There is no law that approves pornography in Nigeria and nudity is still a foreign practice or custom in the cultural context of Nigeria in general.  However, some cultural rites permit exposure of some part of the body during festival especially but not absolute nudity as being encouraged by today’s media under watchful e yes of religious bodies.  Nudity permissiveness is becoming a serious concern to well-meaning moralists and dedicated disciplined individuals especially because of the way bodies are being revealed sanctioned by the free use of some body-exposed dressings in public places and even at the sacred places like churches or religious centres.

The silent posture of the church and the presence of scanty dressing in churches depict a vagrant approval of the dressing.  In the FGD, some participants believed that pornographic material violates the commandment of God that says: “Thou shalt not . . . commit adultery . . . nor do anything like unto it” (Deut 5:18; Exo 20:14) and it is believed that such can lead to other serious sins. Members of the Church should therefore avoid pornography in any form and should oppose its production, distribution, and use.

 

Conclusion and recommendations

This study confirmed that most parents do not usually engage their children in sex education and neither do the children feel free to discuss sexually- related issues with their parents, a major gap in the families that adolescents are striving hard to fill through any available source and at all costs.  Amongst the interesting observations revealed in this study is that many adolescents feel at ease watching television with their parents around them but they are not always comfortable surfing the internet with their parents or adult around.  Privacy is in most cases extremely limited in TV watching whereas adolescent would prefer exploring the privacy inherent in internet (cyber-café for example) and watch whatever he / she wants.

Pornography is the most common form of adult entertainment that adolescents are exposed to in Nigeria and erotic dancing, prostitution, sex shows and stripping were not popular. While the most common medium through which they access this is television, more males view adult entertainment than females.  Many adolescents can comfortably watch TV with their parents, while they would not want to watch other media while older adult or parents are around.  Several agreed that what they watch can encourage them to have sexual experience and relationship.  But while the study confirmed that adult entertainment could have adverse effect on adolescent sexual behaviour, adequate sex education would serve as a substitute to adult entertainment in the sex lives of adolescents.

The mass media and technological advancement of the 21st century has played a major role in the spread of adult entertainment as adolescents can obtain easily, such information from the internet and by watching movies on television.  Most adolescents in Nigerian are greatly exposed to adult entertainment.  It is however evident that lack of adequate sex education in homes by parents / guardians and at schools by teachers is largely responsible for the desperate adventure on the part of the adolescent to “satisfy the missing link at all cost”. This unmet need at home necessitates the scrambling for it from other sources, which in most cases, is usually satisfied by peers, with its subsequent misdemeanors. Where cultivation theory applies: adoption of expressed values and beliefs follow and behaviour becomes altered.  This will push them into the experimentation of what they have been exposed to, in the form of sexual relations.

It is believed, based on the findings in this study, that adolescents’ sexuality can be re-molded to generated sustainable, responsible, well-informed and well-equipped future generation of mature adults and successful parents.   The findings here are meant to direct stakeholders’ action in overhauling (where necessary) the wobbling image of a society that has virtually lost its moral values of good behaviour in the area of sexuality.  Therefore it is on this the paper submit that the high rate of adolescent indulgence in adult entertainment could be curbed by provision of adequate sex education for adolescents in normal open settings like schools, seminars, religious houses, rather than the current clandestine campaigning syndrome.  Sexuality programme / courses should be developed and integrated into the curriculum of academic institutions especially at secondary and tertiary levels. A high degree of Parent-Child Closeness (PCC) should be made a major priority in every home because this ultimately translates to the child feeling free to discuss sensitive matters, even those involving sexuality, with the parents.  Restrictions should also be placed on the mass media by the government; scrutinizing and stiff censorship should be placed on media coverage of sexuality matters.  The mass media should then be made to provide alternative forms of entertainment for adolescents, which would educate them academically in matters concerning their age.

References

 

Blumer and Hauser. 1933. was one of a group sponsored by the Payne

Brown, J. D. 1993: Theoretical overview. In B. S. Greenberg, J. D. Brown, & N. L. Buerkel-Rothfuss(Eds.),Media, sex and the adolescent (pp. 19-25). Cresskill, NJ:Hampton Press.

Brown, J. D., & Steele, J. R. 1995. Sex and the mass media (Report No. 1093). Menlo Park, CA: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation.

Buerkel-Rothfuss, N. L., Strouse, J. S., Pettey, G., & Shatzer, M. 1993.  Adolescents’ and young adults’ exposure to sexually oriented and sexually explicit media. In B. S. Greenberg, J. D. Brown, & N. L. Buerkel-Rothfuss (Eds.), Media, sex and the adolescent (pp. 99-112). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. 

Collins, Rebecca L., Marc N. Elliott, Sandra H. Berry, David E. Kanouse, Dale Kunkel, Sarah B. Hunter, and Angela Miu. 2004. “Watching Sex on Television Predicts Adolescent Initiation of Sexual Behavior,” Pediatrics, Vol. 114, No. 3, September 2004.

Cyril Burt. 1925.  The Young Delinquent p. 137.

Downs, Donald A. 2008. “Pornography.” Microsoft® Student 2008 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2007.

Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signori Elli, N. 1986. Living with television: the dynamics of the cultivation process. In J. Bryant & D. Zillerman (Eds.), Perspectives in media effects (pp.17-40). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Glueck, E.  1950. Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency (1950), p. 161.

Grube, J. W., & Wallack, L. 1994. Television beer advertising and drinking knowledge, beliefs, and intentions among schoolchildren. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 254-259.

Himmelweit et al. 1958.  Television and the Child (1958), pp. 11-12.In Mass Communications, ed. Wilbur ,Schramm (1949), pp. 389, 396-7.

IzIbid., at p. 9.

Lazarsfeld and Kendall. 1960. “The Communications Behavior of the Average American,” New York Times, Feb. 12, 1960, p. 43, col. 3.

Matthews A. Ojo. 2007. Religion and Sexuality: Individuality, Choice and Sexual Rights in Nigerian Christianity. Humanity Sexuality in Africa beyond Reproduction. Edited by  Eleanor Maticka-Tyndale, Richmond Tiemoko and Paulina Makinwa-Adebusoye.  Action Health Incorporated. Fanele Jacana Media (Pty) Ltd.

Tiemoko Richmond and Oku-Egbas Arit. 2006. Monitoring Media Coverage of Sexuality: An Introduction. Sexuality In Media, Emerging Issues in Africa. 2005 Edition. Published by Africa Regional Sexuality Resource Centre, ARSRC 2006. ISBN: 978-37944-1-8 P6-10

Walsh-Childers, K., & Brown, J. D. 1993. Adolescents’ acceptance of sex-role stereotypes and television viewing. In B. S. Greenberg, J. D. Brown, & N. L. Buerkel-Rothfuss (Eds.), Media, sex and the adolescent (pp. 117-133). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

Walsh-Childers, K., & Brown, J. D. 1993. Adolescents’ Acceptance off Sex-Role Stereotypes and Television Viewing. In B. S. Greenberg, J. D. Brown, & N. L. Buerkel-Rothfuss (Eds.), Media, sex and the adolescent (pp. 117-133). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

Ward, L. M., & Rivadeneyra, R. 1999. Contributions of entertainment television to adolescents’ sexual attitudes and expectations: The role of viewing amount versus viewer involvement. Journal of Sex Research, 36(3), 237-249.

 

William Healy and Augusta Bronner. 1936. New Light on Delinquency p. 72.

 

Wolfe and Fiske, “The Children Tell about Comics,” Communications Research,

 

 

 

PPENDIX

Table 1: Demographic characteristics of respondents

Variables

Frequency

Percent

Sex

 

 

Male

51

44.7

Female

63

55.3

Total

114

100.0

Age group

 

 

12- 16

6

5.3

17- 21

75

65.8

22- 24

33

28.9

Total

114

100.0

Living status of parents

 

 

Both living together

93

81.6

Separated

6

5.3

Divorced

1

.9

Single

14

12.3

Total

114

100.0

Closeness to parents

 

 

Very close

36

31.6

Close

55

48.2

Undecided

10

8.8

Quite distant

10

8.8

Very distant

3

2.6

Total

114

100.0

Regularity of discussion  of sexual matters with Parents

 

 

Very frequently

8

7.0

Frequently

18

15.8

Often

16

14.0

Less frequently

40

35.1

Never

32

28.1

Total

114

100.0

Sensitive discussion with Parents

 

 

Very frequent

17

14.9

Not at all

36

31.6

Sometimes

28

24.6

Rarely

33

28.9

Total

114

100.0

Respondent in relationship

 

 

In relationship

48

42.1

Not In relationship

48

42.1

Broken relationship

18

15.8

Total

114

100.0

Table 2: Adolescents and medium of adult entertainment

Parent’s awareness of  child’s Relationship

Number

Percentage

Yes

40

35.1

No

33

28.9

Never been in a relationship

41

36.0

Hours of watching television / cinema

 

 

2- 5 hrs

66

57.9

6- 8 hrs

33

28.9

9- 12 hrs

9

7.9

13 hrs & above

6

5.3

Surfing Internet

 

 

2- 5 hrs

96

84.2

6- 8 hrs

9

7.9

9- 12 hrs

6

5.3

13 hrs & above

3

2.6

Watching TV with Parent / Elderly

 

 

Yes

58

50.9

No

56

49.1

Surf Internet with Adult Around

 

 

Yes

44

38.6

No

70

61.4

Exposure to sex shows

Frequency

Percent

Yes (Exposed)

39

34.2

Not Exposed

75

65.8

Exposure to erotic materials

 

Frequency

Percent

Yes

50

43.9

No

64

56.1

Exposure to stripping

Frequency

Percent

Yes

38

33.3

No

76

66.7

Contact with sex workers

 

 

Yes

13

11.4

No

101

88.6

Sex inclusion in Sermon / Teaching in Churches

 

 

Ever Heard

35

30.7

Never Heard it

79

69.3

Parent’s Religion

 

 

Christianity

114

100.0

 

 

 

 

Table 3: Exposure to adult entertainment and sexual behaviour

Exposure to Pornography

Exposed

Not Exposed

Total

Medium

Yes

%

No

%

TV

85

 74.6

29

25.4

114

Video

74

 64.9

40

35.1

114

Cinema

14

 12.3

100

87.7

114

Print media magazine

46

 40.4

68

59.6

114

Radio

10

 8.8

104

91.2

114

Internet

40

 35.1

74

64.9

114

Club Houses

27

 23.7

87

76.3

114

 

Exposed

Not Exposed

 

Sexual behaviour

Yes

%

No

%

Total

Ever experienced intercourse

40

 48.8

42

51.2

82

Never experienced intercourse

10

 31.3

22

68.8

32

Have intercourse very frequently

8

 50.0

8

50.0

16

Have intercourse frequently

12

 46.2

14

53.8

26

Have intercourse less often

20

 50.0

20

50.0

40

Exposure by Sex

 

 

 

 

 

Male

41

80.4

10

19.6

51

Female

26

41.3

37

58.7

63

 

 

Tables 4: Adolescents’ opinion about adult entertainment

Issues

Strongly agree

Agree

Undecided

Disagree

Strongly disagree

 

Total

It encourage drive for sex

52

(45.6%)

32 (28.1)

1

(0.9%)

20 (17.5%)

9

 (2.9)

114

Adolescents are greatly exposed to it

82

 (71.9%)

29 (25.4%)

0

1

(0.9%)

2

 (1.8%)

114

Parent’s life style induces Adult Entertainment

30

 (26.3%)

41 (36.0%)

17

 (14.9%)

19 (16.7%)

7

 (6.1)

114

Formal sex education is a substitute

51

(44.7%)

37 (32.5%)

13

 (11.4%)

11 (9.6%)

2

(1.8%)

114

It has negative effect of adolescent’s sexuality

61

 (53.5%)

31 (27.2%)

13

(11.4%)

5

 (4.4%)

4

(3.5%)

114

 

Table 5: Adult entertainment, style of parenting and sex education effect on Adolescents Sexuality

 

Adult entertainment has a negative effect on Adolescent Sexuality

 Opinion

Observed    (oi)

Expected    (ei)

Residual

(oi – ei)

(oi – ei)2

(oi – ei)2/ ei

Strongly agree

61

22.8

38.2

1459.24

64.00

Agree

31

22.8

8.2

67.24

2.95

Undecided

13

22.8

-9.8

96.04

4.21

Disagree

5

22.8

-17.8

316.84

13.90

Strongly disagree

4

22.8

-18.8

353.44

15.50

Total

114

 

 

 

100.56

 

 

 

 

 

 

Style of parenting in Nigeria is responsible for indulgence in Adult Entertainment

 

Opinion

Observed    (oi)

Expected    (ei)

Residual

(oi – ei)

(oi – ei)2

(oi – ei)2/ ei

Strongly agree

30

22.8

7.2

51.84

2.27

Agree

41

22.8

18.2

331.24

14.53

Undecided

19

22.8

-3.8

14.44

0.63

Disagree

17

22.8

-5.8

33.64

1.48

Strongly disagree

7

22.8

-15.8

249.64

10.95

Total

114

 

 

 

29.86

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sex education will reduce spread of Adult entertainment amongst adolescents

 Opinion

Observed   (oi)

Expected   (ei)

Residual

(oi – ei)

(oi – ei)2

(oi – ei)2/ ei

Strongly agree

51

22.8

28.2

795.24

34.88

Agree

37

22.8

14.2

201.64

8.84

Undecided

13

22.8

-9.8

96.04

4.21

Disagree

11

22.8

-11.8

139.24

6.11

Strongly disagree

2

22.8

-20.8

432.64

18.98

Total

114

 

 

 

72.02

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Launching into semi-retirement or retirement may be difficult without having to choose to relocate to a new home, at the same time. However, many people over 55 are choosing to leave their large families or household to move to active adult communities.

In recent years there has been much discussion of lifestyle on the welfare and harmony. Philosophies about how to keep good lifestyle that encourages health living are springing up here and there and everywhere. active adult community living is a regular feature of a special development of high-end community. It caters to the healthy lifestyle and active adults living in the community. It promotes wellness, camaraderie among neighbors and socialization activities

The recognition of active adult communities continues to spread worldwide. These districts are intended to provide all the needs of the elderly in a residential individual. These styles also try to motivate them to participate in the routines of energy instead of assuming non-active lifestyles. Thanks to the efforts of men and women who developed this rapidly growing community, older people can now enjoy interesting activities, such as meetings sociable and a variety of exciting sporting activities.

San Francisco Orange County is a happening place, as it is a first class resort with popular attractions such as Disneyland and Knott’s Berry Farm. It is known for its beautiful beaches which are considered to attract hundreds of tourists and visitors the lonely years. Orange County has very well developed cities, of which seven are on the list of the 200 largest U.S. cities. It is known for offering many opportunities for sport and recreation such as surfing, kayaking, hiking, biking, golf and more.

From the shores of the Pacific Ocean in Hawaii to the Atlantic coast of Florida, there are countless active adult communities that provide life insurance, active and assisted for the elderly. It is not an easy task to select five of a list as long and is even more difficult because the interests and needs of the people are so different. The good news is that, regardless of their particular needs and desires can be no one to make your list as the top in the country

Aging is a period in his life when he comes to discover a host of exciting things and discoveries that will never get to do in his younger days even busier. Gone are the days and the idea that old age is limited to the four corners of your room bitterly remembering the days when they were in the prime of his youth. Definitely deserves to enjoy and reap the fruits of their work through giving yourself the best you can offer the quality of life. One is by investing in properties in active adult communities.

Staying In Shape: How 55+ Communities In Florida Help

Living in one of many 55+ communities in Florida offers retirees the opportunity to keep up their active and healthy life styles. Retiring generally allows seniors the time and energy to enjoy their lives, their families, and their homes, but there is no reason not to stay healthy as well.

On-site Fitness Centers

It’s quite simple to stay fit by taking advantage of the benefits of living in 55+ communities in Florida. Numerous homes offer fitness centers on site with staff on call to assist with machines and other exercise equipment. The staff can also craft plans based on physical limitations such as cardiovascular conditions, arthritis, or other illnesses that may require modifications for exercise.

Golf, Tennis And Other Outdoor Sports

Fitness centers aren’t the only way to stay in shape at 55+ adult communities in Florida. There are numerous sports to play as well. Golf, for instance, is fun, relaxing and challenging and walking 18 holes is great for staying in shape. Another popular game is tennis. Lighted tennis courts provide gaming time from early morning to late at night, offering time to play without being under the hot Florida sun. Improving on skills for these two games is quite easy because coaches are there to teach techniques for better serves, and swings.

Other gaming options include basketball courts, pickleball, and softball. With so many people living in the same area there are always people willing to play and many communities put together leagues for fun competition. Equipment is pretty easy to get a hold of too, if it isn’t available on-site, stores are within a 5-minute drive to get whatever is needed, possibly by golf cart.

Classes And Other Amenities That Help Active Adults Stay In Shape

While fitness centers and sports are great ways to stay active, there are other choices too. Fitness classes offered are usually fun and challenging as well. Instructors are especially trained in coaching seniors through classes like yoga, Zumba, spinning, and more. They are aware of the modifications that might be needed in the cases of certain limitations, while still allowing everyone to participate.

Most active adult communities have a community pool with lifeguards on staff who teach classes. Aqua dynamics, aerobics, and lap swim, allow seniors who love the water to stay fit. The water is a great place to get exercise for low impact activity. The water has enough give to it, that no one gets hurt, but provides a low amount of resistance to achieve the benefit of improving strength.

With so many options available to continue staying active in 55+ adult communities in Florida, there’s no reason any active adult wouldn’t love one of the luxurious homes available there. Having the great weather means being able to enjoy every hobby possible year-round.

Active Adult Living: 3 Basic Amenities in a Delaware 55 and Over Communities

We are now witnessing the growth of several active adult communities as the old age group of our population is now seeking for better alternatives and choices. Although there are other places that are engaged in aggressive campaigns to entice senior retirees to stay in their retirement community, Delaware is easily the most ideal place for active adult living.  One thing that is most notable about the retirement communities in Delaware is that it promotes the image of active adult lifestyle and not the sedentary life of retirement.

We may hear a lot of great things about retirement homes worldwide, however, the best housing communities are those found in Delaware primarily for several reasons.  Active adults during these times look out for certain things in a community. These are what select senior retirees go for when they decide to stay in Delaware.  The following are the reasons senior retirees prefer to go to Delaware instead of other places.

State of the Art Healthcare Amenities

The availability of modern healthcare facilities is an essential element for an ideal 55+ communities. The active adults in Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and New York are better served by an ideal retirement community with complete healthcare facilities. One can expect the facilities to provide regular checkups on pulse rate, blood pressure, sugar levels and other medical services to ensure that you are in tiptop shape. The upside of having a medical facility within the community is that it provides convenience and immediate medical attention when needed.

Physical Fitness and Exercise Facilities

A major part of active and healthy adult living involves healthy exercise and physical fitness program.  Retirement communities in Delaware maintain modern and state of the art exercise facilities especially designed for senior retirees.  A perfect retirement community in Delaware boasts of the best and finest physical fitness equipment and amenities that are suited for senior retirees.  The best of retirement communities like the ones in Delaware are the top choices for they promote healthy living through a medically-sound training and exercise regimen sponsored by this health facility in premiere 55 and over communities.

Secured Active Adult Community

One of the major concerns of senior retirees is the security provisions of the retirement communities. The active adult communities in Delaware provide the best security provisions one can expect from an ideal retirement community. These retirement communities are provided with reliable security provisions that feature locks on all windows, metal bar barriers and a modern centralized alarm system.  This cutting edge facility provides the utmost security that retirees are looking for in a retirement community. These Delaware retirement communities provide 24/7 patrol service to ensure the safety of every resident in the community.

These are the essentials that most of senior retirees look for in a retirement community.  In addition to these basic amenities, Delaware retirement communities also provide entertainment and social facilities that are dedicated for retirees who prefer an active adult lifestyle.  One can enjoy and spend some leisure time in the picnic areas, clubhouses, theaters and swimming pools.  These are the reason why Delaware should be on the top of your list for as one of your ideal 55+ communities.

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